Broken Ashoka Pillar
With Inscription
Ashoka
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka
Ashoka
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Maurya Samrat
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A "Chakravartin" ruler, first century BC/CE. Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati. Preserved at Musee Guimet |
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Reign
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274–232 BCE
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Coronation
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270 BCE
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Titles
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Samraat Chakravartin;
other titles include Devanampriya andPriyadarsin
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Born
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304 BCE
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Birthplace
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Died
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232 BCE (aged 72)
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Place of death
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Buried
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Predecessor
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Successor
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Wives
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Rani Kaurwaki
Rani Devi Rani Padmavati Rani Tishyaraksha |
Royal House
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Father
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Mother
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Maharani Dharma or Shubhadrangi
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Children
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Mahendra, Sanghamitra,
Teevala, Kunala
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Religious beliefs
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Ashoka Maurya (304 BCE - 232 BCE) commonly known as Ashoka (also written as Aśoka) and also as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian
subcontinent from ca. 269 BCE to 232 BCE.[1] One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over
most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire
stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan to present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east, and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.
In about 260BCE Ashoka waged a bitterly destructive war against the states of Kalinga (modern Orissa).[2] He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors
starting fromChandragupta
Maurya had conquered. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar). He
supposedly embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War,
which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. "Ashoka reflected
on the war in Kalinga, which reportedly had resulted in more than 100,000
deaths and 150,000 deportations."[3]Ashoka converted gradually to Buddhism
beginning about 263 BCE at the latest.[2] He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism
across Asia and established monuments marking several significant
sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.
"Ashoka regarded Buddhism as a doctrine that could serve as a cultural
foundation for political unity."[4] Ashoka is often remembered in history as a philanthropic administrator.
In the history
of India, Ashoka is referred to as Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka – the "Emperor of Emperors Ashoka."
His name "aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow"
in Sanskrit (the aprivativum and śoka "pain, distress"). In his edicts,
he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "The Beloved Of The Gods"), and Priyadarśin (Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with affection").
His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree, or the "Asoka tree" is also referenced in
the Ashokavadana.
In the
history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called
themselves "Their Highnesses," "Their Majesties,"
"Their Exalted Majesties," and so on. They shone for a brief moment,
and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright
star, even unto this day.
Along with the Edicts of
Ashoka, his legend is related in the later 2nd-century Ashokavadana ("Narrative of Asoka," a part of Divyavadana), and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle").
Ashoka played a critical role in helping make
Buddhism a world religion.[5] The emblem of the modern Republic
of India is an adaptation of the Lion
Capital of Ashoka.
Contents
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[edit]Biography
[edit]Early life
Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and a relatively lower ranked wife of his,
Dharmā [or Dhammā]. He was the grandson of Chandragupta
Maurya, founder of Mauryan dynasty. The Ashokavadana states that his mother was an queen named Subhadrangī,
the daughter of Champa of Telangana. Empress Subhadrangī was a Brahmin of the Ajivika sect,[6] and was found to be a suitable match for
Emperor Bindusara. Though a palace intrigue kept her away from the emperor,
this eventually ended, and she bore a son. It is from her exclamation "I
am now without sorrow," that Ashoka got his name. The Divyāvadāna tells a
similar story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī.[7][8]
Ashoka had several elder siblings, all of
whom were his half-brothers from other wives of Bindusara. He had been given
the royal military training knowledge which was greatly apparent as he was
known as a fearsome hunter, and according to a legend, killed a lion with just
a wooden rod. He was very adventurous and a trained fighter, who was known for
his skills with the sword. Because of his reputation as a frightening warrior
and a heartless general, he was sent to curb the riots in the Avanti province of the Mauryan empire.[9]
[edit]Rise to power
Maurya Empire at the age of Ashoka. The empire
stretched from Afghanistan toBangladesh/Assam and
from Central Asia(Afghanistan) to Tamil Nadu/South India.
The Buddhist text Divyavadana describes Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities
of wicked ministers. This may have been an incident in Bindusara's
times. Taranatha's
account states that Chanakya, one of Bindusara's great lords, destroyed
the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory
between the eastern and the western seas. Some historians consider this as an
indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others consider it as
suppression of a revolt. Following this, Ashoka was stationed at Ujjayini as
governor.[8]
Bindusara's death in 273 BCE led to a war
over succession. According to Divyavandana, Bindusara wanted his son Sushim to
succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers, who found
Sushim to be arrogant and disrespectful towards them.[10] A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an
important role in Ashoka's rise to the throne. The Ashokavadana recounts
Radhagupta's offering of an old royal elephant to Ashoka for him to ride to the
Garden of the Gold Pavilion where King Bindasura would determine his successor.
Ashoka later got rid of the legitimate heir to the throne by tricking him into
entering a pit filled with live coals. Radhagupta, according to the Ashokavadana,
would later be appointed Prime Minister by Ashoka once he had gained the
throne. The Dipavansa and Mahavansa refer to Ashoka's killing 99 of his brothers, sparing
only one, named Tissa,[8] although there is no clear proof about this
incident (many such accounts are saturated with mythological elements). The coronation happened in 269 BC, four years after his succession to
the throne.
[edit]Early life as Emperor
An imaginary painting of Asoka's Queen by Abanindranath
Tagore (1871-1951)
Buddhist legends state that Ashoka was of a
wicked nature and bad temper. He submitted his ministers to a test of loyalty
and had 500 of them killed. He also kept a harem of around 500 women. When a
few of these women insulted him for his "rough skin" after he fondly
compared himself with the beauty of the Asoka tree (which according to the
Ashokavadana, the women defiled by plucking off all of the flowers), he had the
whole lot of them burnt to death. He also built an elaborate torture
chamber, deemed the "Paradisal Hell" because of its
beautiful exterior contrasted with the acts carried out inside by his appointed
executioner Girikaa,[11] which earned him the name of "çanḍa Ashoka" or
"Chandaashoka," meaning "Ashoka the Fierce" in Sanskrit.
Professor Charles Drekmeier cautions that the Buddhist legends intend to
dramatize the change resulting from the Buddhist change, and therefore, exaggerate
Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.[12]
Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his
empire over the next eight years, from the present-day boundaries and regions
of Burma–Bangladesh and the state of Assam in India in the east to the
territory of present-day Iran / Persia and Afghanistan in the west; from the
Pamir Knots in the north almost to the peninsular of southern India (i.e. Tamil
Nadu / Andhra Pradesh).[8]
[edit]Conquest of Kalinga
Main article: Kalinga War
While the early part of Ashoka's reign was
apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's
teachings after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Orissa and North Coastal Andhra Pradesh.
Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With
its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient
Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma.
Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with
the concept of bravery and Kshatriyadharma. The Kalinga War happened eight years
after his coronation. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the
battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers
and many civilians who rose up in defense; over 150,000 were deported.[13] When he was walking through the grounds of Kalinga after
his conquest, rejoicing in his victory, he was moved by the number of bodies
strewn there and the wails of the kith and kin of the dead.
[edit]Buddhist conversion
A similar four "Indian lion"
Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an intact Ashoka Pillar at Wat U Mong near Chiang Mai, Thailand showing
another larger Dharma Chakra / Ashoka Chakra atop the four lions thought to be
missing in the Lion Capital of Ashoka atSarnath Museum which has been adopted as the National
Emblem of India.
Edict 13 on the Edicts of
Ashoka Rock Inscriptions reflect the great remorse
the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:
His
Majesty feels remorse on account of the conquest of the Kalingaa because,
during the subjugation of a previously unconquered country, slaughter, death,
and taking away captive of the people necesarily occur, wherest His Majest
feels profound sorrow and regret.
The Edict goes on to address the even greater
degree of sorrow and regret garnered by Ashoka's understanding that the lives
of the friends and families of deceased would cause great living suffering as
well, as Ashoka perceived the overarching misery that resulted from mass
slaughter of the Kalinga people.[14]
Legend says that one day after the war was
over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt
houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous
monologue:[15]
What
have I done? If this is a victory, what's a defeat then? Is this a victory or a
defeat? Is this justice or injustice? Is it gallantry or a rout? Is it valor to
kill innocent children and women? Did I do it to widen the empire and for
prosperity or to destroy the other's kingdom and splendor? One has lost her
husband, someone else a father, someone a child, someone an unborn infant....
What's this debris of the corpses? Are these marks of victory or defeat? Are
these vultures, crows, eagles the messengers of death or evil?
The brutality of the conquest led him to
adopt Buddhism and place great emphasis on piety in his Edicts, and he used his position to propagate the relatively
new religion to new heights. He made Buddhism his state religion around 260 BC,
propagating and preaching it within his domain and worldwide from about 250 BCE.[16] He can be thus credited with the first serious attempt to
develop a Buddhist policy. Prominent in this cause were his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who
established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).
Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali
[edit]Death
and legacy
Ashoka's
Major Rock Edict at Junagadhcontains inscriptions by Ashoka
(fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradamanna I andSkandagupta.
Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years.
After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had
many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. Mahindra and Sanghamitra were twins born by his first wife, Devi, in the city of Ujjain. He had
entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular
across the known and the unknown world. Mahindra and Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka and converted the King, the Queen and their people to
Buddhism.
In his old age, he seems to have come under
the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It
is said that she had got Ashoka's son Kunala, the
regent in Takshashila and the heir presumptive to the throne, blinded by a wily stratagem.
The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer
accompanied by his favourite wifeKanchanmala. In Pataliputra,
Ashoka hears Kunala's song, and realizes that Kunala's misfortune may have been
a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself and condemns Tishyaraksha
to death, restoring Kunala to the court. In the Ashokavadana, Kunala is
portrayed as forgiving Tishyaraksha, having obtained enlightenment through
Buddhist practice. While he urges Ashoka to forgive her as well, Ashoka does
not respond with the same forgiveness.[11] Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, but
his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death.
The reign of Ashoka Mauryan could easily have
disappeared into history as the ages passed by, would he not have left behind a
record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the
form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions
and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashokan
left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. The
language used for inscription was the then current spoken form called Prakrit.
In the year 185 BC, about fifty years after
Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brhadratha, was
assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra
Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces.
Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BC-78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part of the
Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire
(modern-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek
Kingdom.
In 1992, Ashoka was ranked #53 on Michael
H. Hart's list of the most
influential figures in history. In 2001, a semi-fictionalized
portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture under the title Asoka. King Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty,
has come to be regarded as one of the most exemplary rulers in world history.
[edit]Buddhist
kingship
Main articles: History
of Buddhism and History
of Buddhism in India
Further information: Buddhism
in Sri Lanka and Buddhism in Burma
One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka
Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and
the state. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership
embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously
dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist
kingship', the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a
divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established
monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of
monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving
disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling
a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This
development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian
countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that
can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism
of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as
both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers
always governed the people in a moral manner.
Ashoka was not non-violent after adopting
Buddhism, as evident by a couple of incidents mentioned in the 2nd century CE
text Ashokavadana. In one instance, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of Nirgrantha
Jnatiputra (identified with Mahavira, the
founder of Jainism). On
complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Asoka issued an order to arrest him, and
subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika
sect were executed as a result of this order.[17][18] Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Asoka burnt him and his entire
family alive in their house.[18] He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a
Nirgrantha heretic. According to Ashokavadana, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken
for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.[17]
[edit]Historical sources
Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka, Ashokavadana, Mahavamsa, and Dipavamsa
Ashoka was almost forgotten by the historians
of the early British India, but James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources.
Another important historian was British archaeologist John
Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests
were Sanchi and Sarnath besides Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander
Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer and often
known as the father of theArchaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage
sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple; thus,
his contribution is recognizable in realms of historical sources. Mortimer
Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources,
especially the Taxila.
Bilingual inscription (in Greek andAramaic) by King Ashoka, discovered atKandahar (National Museum of Afghanistan).
Information about the life and reign of
Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In
particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the
two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known
information about Ashoka. Additional information is contributed by theEdicts of Asoka,
whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after
the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarsi –
'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya.
Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar, Patna, which
include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall.
Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions
on the Pillars
of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor
Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty during his reign from 272 to 231 BC. These
inscriptions are dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Pakistan and
India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts
describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship
of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information
about Ashoka's proselytism, Moral precepts, Religious precepts, Social and animal
welfare.[19]
Ashokavadana - The Ashokavadana is a 2nd century CE text related to
the legend of the Maurya Emperor Ashoka. The legend was translated into Chinese
by Fa Hien in 300 CE. It is essentially a Hinayana text and its
world is that of Mathura and North-west India. The emphasis of this little
known text is on exploring the relationship between the king and the community
of monks (the Sangha) and setting
up an ideal of religious life for the laity (the common man) by telling appealing stories about
religious exploits. The most startling feature is that Ashoka’s conversion has
nothing to do with the Kalinga war, which is not even mentioned, nor is there a
word about his belonging to the Maurya dynasty. Equally surprising is the
record of his use of state power to spread Buddhism in an uncompromising
fashion. The legend of Veetashoka provides insights into Ashoka’s character
that are not available in the widely known Pali records.[11]
Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle")
is a historical poem written in the Pali language, of the kings of Sri Lanka. It
covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga(ancient
Orissa) in 543 BC to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361). As it often refers
to the royal dynasties of India, the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians
who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian
subcontinent. It is very important in dating the consecration of the
Maurya emperor Ashoka.
Dipavamsa -The Dipavamsa, or "Deepavamsa",
(i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri
Lanka. The chronicle is believe to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3–4th century; King
Dhatusena (4th century CE) had ordered that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda (son to Ashoka) festival held annually in Anuradhapura.
[edit]Perceptions
The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing
the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well
as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early
scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a
conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting
the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this
assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources
are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a
Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions
of his time: Buddhism,Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and
his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed
specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions)
generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept.
However, there is strong evidence in the
edicts alone that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he
banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not
look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, there are many edicts
expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close
familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites,
but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral
action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. Finally, the ideals
he promotes correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated
discourse.[20]
Interestingly, the Ashokavadana presents an
alternate view of the faimilar Ashoka; one in which his conversion does not
have anything to do with the Kalinga war or about his descent from the Maurya
dynasty. Instead, Ashoka's reason for adopting non-violence appears much more
personal. The Ashokavadana shows that the main source of Ashoka's conversion
and the acts of welfare that followed are rooted instead in intense personal
anguish at its core, from a wellspring inside himself (not so much necessarily
spurned by a specific event). It thereby illuminates Ashoka as more humanly
ambitious and passionate, with both greatness and flaws. ThisAshoka is
very different from the "shadowy do-gooder" of later Pali chronicles.[11]
Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from
the several
inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks
throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate
loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his
"children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.[21] These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and
encouraged nonviolence and adherence to dharma (duty or proper behavior), and they talk of his fame and
conquered lands as well as the neighboring kingdoms holding up his might. One
also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies
plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most notable of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of
sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd
century BC. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which
was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolizes
both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In
translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to
have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether
or not some actual events ever happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict
how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.
[edit]Foci
of Debate
Recently scholarly analysis has determined
that the three major foci of debate regarding Ashoka involve the nature of the
Maurya empire; the extent and impact of Ashoka's pacifism, and what is referred
to in the Inscriptions as dhammaor dharma, which
connotes goodness, virtue, and charity. Some historians have argued that
Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya
empire, while others have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism
have been "grossly exaggerated. The dhamma of the Edicts has been understood as
concurrently a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort
of universal religion," or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it
has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse
empire. Scholars are still attempting to analyze and both the expressed and
implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision),
and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems
and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and
economically highly variegated, third century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless,
it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of
royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very
important innovation in royal practices.[19]
[edit]Contributions
[edit]Global spread of Buddhism
Stupa of Sanchi.
As a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and
plants, so he built a number of stupas, Sangharama, viharas, chaitya, and
residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia. He gave donations to viharas and mathas. He sent
his only daughter Sanghamitra and son Mahindra to spread Buddhism inSri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni). Ashoka also sent many
prominent Buddhist monks (bhikshus) Sthaviras like Madhyamik Sthavira to modern Kashmir and Afghanistan;
Maharaskshit Sthavira to Syria, Persia / Iran, Egypt, Greece, Italy and Turkey; Massim
Sthavira to Nepal, Bhutan, China and Mongolia; Sohn Uttar Sthavira to modern Cambodia, Laos, Burma (old name Suvarnabhumi for Burma and Thailand), Thailand and Vietnam;
Mahadhhamarakhhita stahvira to Maharashtra (old name Maharatthha); Maharakhhit Sthavira and
Yavandhammarakhhita Sthavira to South India.
Ashoka also invited Buddhists and
non-Buddhists for religious conferences. He inspired the Buddhist monks to
compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that
end. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalanda and Taxila. Ashoka
helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple.
Ashoka also gave donations to non-Buddhists. As his reign continued his
even-handedness was replaced with special inclination towards Buddhism.[22] Ashoka helped and respected both Sramans (Buddhists
monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks). Ashoka also helped to organize the Third
Buddhist council (c. 250 BC) at Pataliputra (today's Patna). It was
conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka.
It is well-known that Ashoka sent dütas or emissaries to convey messages or letters,
written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about
"oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not
unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's
messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant
to spread his dhammavijaya, which he considered the highest victory and which he
wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious
and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi
script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this
script, asAchaemenid influence is seem in some of the formulations used by
Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in
contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading
new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.[23]
In his edicts, Ashoka mentions some of the
people living in Hellenic
countries as converts to Buddhism, although no Hellenic
historical record of this event remain:
Now it
is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best
conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even
six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there
where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule,
likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni.
Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the
Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas,
everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma.
Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having
heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given
by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so.
— Edicts of Ashoka, Rock
Edict (S. Dhammika)[24]
It is not too farfetched to imagine, however,
that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the
Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions
of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings
in India (as well as the dütas sent by Ashoka himself).[23]
The Greeks in India even seem to have played
an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of
Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita,
are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism
(the Mahavamsa, XII[25]).
[edit]As
administrator
Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. third century
BC. British Museum.
Ashoka's military power was strong, but after
his conversion to Buddhism, he maintained friendly relations with kingdoms in
the South like Cholas, Pandya, Keralaputra, the
post Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi.
His edicts state that he made provisions for medical treatment of
humans and animals in his own kingdom as well as in these neighbouring states.
He also had wells dug and trees planted along the roads for the benefit of the
common people.[21]
Ashoka banned the slaughter and eating of the
common cattle, and also
imposed restrictions on fishing and fish-eating.[26] He also abolished the royal hunting of animals and
restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence.[27] Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary
clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under
Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world
history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving
of its protection as the human residents."[28]
[edit]Ashoka Chakra
Main article: Ashoka Chakra
The Ashoka Chakra, "the wheel of
Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or
Dhamma in Pali)"
The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra
(see Dharmacakra) or
Dhammachakka in Pali, the Wheel
of Dharma (Sanskrit: Chakra
means wheel). The wheel has 24 spokes which represent the 12 Laws of Dependent
Origination and the 12 Laws of Dependent Termination. The Ashoka Chakra has
been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital
of Sarnath and The Ashoka Pillar.
The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the
National flag of the Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is
rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background, by replacing the symbol of
Charkha (Spinning wheel)
of the pre-independence versions of the flag. The Ashoka Chakra can also been
seen on the base of Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the
National Emblem of India.
The Ashoka Chakra was built by Ashoka during
his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means "cycle" or
"self-repeating process." The process it signifies is the cycle of
time- as in how the world changes with time.
A few days before India became independent on
August 1947, the specially formed Constituent
Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities.[29] A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and
Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected.
[edit]Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)
Main article: Pillars of Ashoka
The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns
dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka
during his reign in the 3rd century BC. Originally, there must have been many
pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging
between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all
the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged,
sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka
was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi.
The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and
guards against evil. There is no evidence of a swastika, or manji, on the
pillars.
[edit]Lion Capital of Asoka (Ashokmudra)
Main article: Lion
Capital of Asoka
The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of
four "Indian lions"
standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Aśoka pillar at Sarnath, now in
the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The
pillar, sometimes called the Aśoka Column is still in its original location,
but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum.
This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National
Emblem of India and the wheel "Ashoka Chakra"
from its base was placed onto the center of the National
Flag of India.
The capital contains four lions (Indian /
Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on an abacus, with a frieze
carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull,
and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped
lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was
believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in
India as the "Ashoka Chakra").
The Ashoka Lion capital or the Sarnath lion
capital is also known as the national symbol of India. The Sarnath pillar bears
one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the
Buddhist community, which reads, "No one shall cause division in the order
of monks." The Sarnath pillar is a column surmounted by a capital, which
consists of a canopy representing an inverted bell-shaped lotus flower, a short
cylindrical abacus with four 24-spoked Dharma wheels with four animals (an elephant, a bull, a horse, a lion).
The four animals in the Sarnath capital are
believed to symbolize different steps of Lord Buddha's life.
·
The Elephant represents
the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya of a white elephant
entering her womb.
·
The Bull represents
desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince.
·
The Horse represents
Buddha's departure from palatial life.
·
The Lion represents the
accomplishment of Buddha.
Besides the religious interpretations, there
are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka
capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolize Ashoka's
rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule
(Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India.
[edit]Constructions credited to Ashoka
Mahabodhi Temple, constructed by Ashoka the Great, approximately 250
BCE;restoration
by the British and
India post independence
·
Barabar Caves, Bihar, India
·
Nalanda University
(Vishwaviddyalaya), (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar, India
·
Taxila University
(Vishwaviddyalaya), (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan
·
Bhir Mound, (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan
·
Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India
[edit]In art, film and literature
·
One of the most famous
figures in modern Hindi literature, Jaishankar Prasad,
composed Ashoka ki chinta (in English: Anxiety of Ashoka), a famous Hindi verse.
The poem portrays Ashoka’s heart during the war of Kalinga.
·
Uttar-Priyadarshi (The Final Beatitude) a verse-play written by poet Agyeya, depicting his redemption, was adapted
to stage in 1996 by theatre director, Ratan Thiyam and has since been performed in many
parts of the world.[30][31]
·
In Piers Anthony’s series
of space opera novels, the main character mentions
Asoka as a model for administrators to strive for.
·
Asoka is a 2001 epic Bollywood historical
drama. It is a largely fictional version of the life of the Indian emperor
Ashoka. The film was directed by Santosh Sivan and stars Shahrukh Khan as Ashoka and Kareena Kapoor as Kaurwaki, a princess of Kalinga. The film ends
with Asoka renouncing the sword and embracing Buddhism. The final narrative
describes how Asoka not only built a large empire, but spread Buddhism and the
winds of peace through it.
·
The
Legend of Kunal is an
upcoming film based on the life of Kunal, the son of the Indian emperor Ashoka.
The movie will be directed by Chandraprakash
Dwivedi.
[edit]See also
·
Magadha
·
Buddhism
[edit]References
2.
^ a b Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts
and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993),
44.
3.
^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts
and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993),
45.
4.
^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts
and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993),
46.
7.
^ K. T. S. Sarao (2007). A text book of the history of Theravāda Buddhism (2 ed.). Department of Buddhist Studies, University
of Delhi. p. 89. ISBN 978-81-86700-66-2.
8.
^ a b c d Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the
Stone Age to the 12th century. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
10.
^ Gyan Swarup Gupta (1 January 1999). India: From
Indus Valley Civlization to Mauryas. Concept Publishing Company.
pp. 268–. ISBN 978-81-7022-763-2. Retrieved 30 October
2012.
11.
^ a b c d Pradip Bhattacharya (2002). "The Unknown
Ashoka". Boloji.com. Retrieved 30 November
2012.
12.
^ Charles Drekmeier (1962). Kingship and
Community in Early India. Stanford University Press.
pp. 173–. ISBN 978-0-8047-0114-3. Retrieved 30 October
2012.
14.
^ Smith, Vincent A. (1901). Rulers of India: Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. pp. 130.
15.
^ Kamath, Prabhakar. "How Ashoka
the Great Gave Brahmins A Song With Which They Conquered India".
Nirmukta.
17.
^ a b John S. Strong (1989). The Legend of
King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna. Motilal
Banarsidass Publ.. pp. 232. ISBN 978-81-208-0616-0. Retrieved 30 October
2012.
18.
^ a b Beni Madhab Barua (5 May 2010). The Ajivikas. General Books.
pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-1-152-74433-2. Retrieved 30 October
2012.
19.
^ a b Upinder Singh (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political
Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of As´oka". South Asian Studies (Routledge) (28.2).
20.
^ Richard Robinson, Willard Johnson, and
Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Buddhist Religions, fifth ed., Wadsworth 2005, page 59.
21.
^ a b The Edicts of King Ashoka, English
translation (1993) by Ven. S. Dhammika. ISBN 955-24-0104-6.
Retrieved on: 2009-02-21
23.
^ a b Oskar von Hinüber (2010). "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to
As´oka?". Journal
of the American Oriental Society (Freiburg) (130.2): 262–265.
24.
^ The Edicts of King
Asoka: an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika. Access to Insight:
Readings in Theravāda Buddhism. Last accessed 01 Sep 2011.
26.
^ Frederick J. Simoons (15 December 1994). Eat Not This
Flesh, 2Nd Edition: Food Avoidances From Prehistory To The Present.
Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 108 and 288. ISBN 978-0-299-14254-4. Retrieved 30 October
2012.
27.
^ Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper; Michael A. Meyer; H. McCoubrey (1998). Reflections on
Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late
Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper, Obe. Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers. p. 44.ISBN 978-90-411-0557-8. Retrieved 30 October
2012.
28.
^ Phelps, Norm (2007). The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras to
Peta. Lantern
Books. ISBN 1590561066.
29.
^ Heimer, Željko (2 July 2006). "India". Flags of the World. Archived from the original on 18 October 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
30.
^ Margo Jefferson (October 27, 2000). "Next Wave
Festival Review; In Stirring Ritual Steps, Past and Present Unfold". New York Times.
[edit]Works cited
·
Ahir, D. C. (1995). Asoka the Great. Delhi: B. R. Publishing.
·
Bhandarkar, D.R. (1969). Aśoka (4th ed.). Calcutta: Calcutta University
Press.
·
Bongard-Levin, G. M. Mauryan India (Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division May
1986) ISBN 0-86590-826-5
·
Chauhan, Gian Chand
(2004). Origin and Growth of
Feudalism in Early India: From the Mauryas to AD 650. Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi. ISBN 978-81-215-1028-8
·
Durant, Will (1935). Our Oriental Heritage. New York: Simon and Schuster.
·
Falk, Harry. Asokan Sites and Artefacts - A
Source-book with Bibliography (Mainz :
Philipp von Zabern, [2006]) ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0
·
Gokhale, Balkrishna
Govind (1996). Asoka Maurya (Twayne Publishers) ISBN 978-0-8290-1735-9
·
Hultzsch, Eugene (1914). The Date of Asoka, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Oct., 1914), pp. 943–951. Article stable URL.
·
Keay, John. India: A History (Grove Press; 1 Grove Pr edition May
10, 2001) ISBN 0-8021-3797-0
·
Mookerji, Radhakumud (1962). Aśoka (3rd ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.
·
Nikam, N. A.; McKeon, Richard (1959). The Edicts of Aśoka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
·
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta
(1967). Age of the Nandas and
Mauryas. Reprint: 1996,
Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1
·
Singh, Upinder (2012).
"Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in
the Edicts of Aśoka," South Asian Studies, 28:2 (University of Delhi:
2012), pp. 131–145. Article stable URL.
·
Swearer, Donald. Buddhism and Society in Southeast
Asia (Chambersburg,
Pennsylvania: Anima Books, 1981) ISBN 0-89012-023-4
·
Thapar, Romila. (1973). Aśoka and the decline of the
Mauryas. 2nd Edition. Oxford
University Press, Reprint, 1980. SBN 19-660379 6.
·
von Hinüber, Oskar.
(2010). "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aśoka?" Journal of the
American Oriental Society, 130:2 (Freiburg: 2010), pp. 261–266.
[edit]External links
Wikisource has the text of the1911 Encyclopædia Britannicaarticle Asoka.
|
·
Ashoka at the Open
Directory Project
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